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http://mattsaviationblog.com

On this new site, since i have php functionality, and im a php programmer, you can expect:

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ATC Communication Part 2

--THIS IS PART 2 OF RADIO COMMUNICATION--

Radio communications may seem complicated at first, but you'll get used to them. Most things a controller will say are standard and will become familiar to you. The order of most of your initial communications is standard, too. Think of these five items: YOU ME WHERE WHAT WITH

1. YOU: Whom you're talking to
2. ME: Who you are
3. WHERE: Where you are
4. WHAT: What you want
5. WITH: Airport information (ATIS)

In other words:

	ITEM	MEANS	EXAMPLE 1	EXAMPLE 2
YOU	1. Whom you're talking to	Control	Van Nuys Ground	Burbank Tower
ME	2. Who you are	Aircraft ID	Katana 505EC*	Cessna 92747*
WHERE	3. Where you are	Position	On the West Ramp	Eight miles southwest
WHAT	4. What you want	Request	Ready for taxi	Inbound for landing
[WITH]	5. Are you informed	ATIS	With X-Ray	We have Bravo

(*Note: don't say, "This is Katana 505EC." That's implied. You can always tell an amateur because they say, "This is…")

ATIS needs only be mentioned on first contact with a new control facility.

You won't need to say all five of these every time you talk. For a typical flight out of controlled airspace, here is the order in which you'll talk on the radio, and the items to be included:

1. CLEARANCE 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
2. GROUND 1, 2, 3, 4
3. TOWER 1, 2, 3, (4)
4. DEPARTURE 1, 2, 3
5. CTAF
6. APPROACH (or tower) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
7. TOWER (if handed off) 1, 2, 3
8. GROUND 1, 2, 3, 4
9. FUEL

Notice that "You and me" is in every one. In your first contact with someone, you identify yourself by aircraft make and tail number, e.g. "Arrow 173ND," or "Katana 505EC." In future communication, the tail number gets abbreviated to just the last three numbers/letters, if there is no confusion with any other similarly-tailed aircraft.

The idea is to keep communications brief. Practice in your head before you push the button. We often shorten communications down to just a few words, e.g. "5EC downwind." Over time, communications will become easy for you.

Things you might want to say:

(Note: in the following explanations, "ATC" means "air traffic control," also known as the controller; the explanations all assume that you are flying in tail number 505EC. As noted, 505EC could be abbreviated to just 5EC after the first call, if there are no similar call letters on the same frequency.)

"…"
Repeat whatever they said. If they say, "5EC cleared to land," you say, "Cleared to land, 5EC." (Note: Typically when reading back, we put the aircraft ID at the end.) It lets them know that you got your instructions, and that you'll follow them. These conversations also get put on to the tape recording, so if anything goes wrong you're safer. It's much better than…

Roger/Wilco
"Roger" means, "I understand." "Wilco" means "I will comply." These are abbreviations used sometimes when the airwaves are very busy, but as a general rule they aren't a good idea. The problem is that the ATC does not know what you think you understand or will comply with. "Roger," by the way, does not mean "Yes." That's said by:

Affirmative/Negative:
Pilot-speak for "Yes," and "No." (Short words sometimes can be cut off by the microphone, or misunderstood.) These are used only in response to a question from ATC.

Say again:
This is the proper form to ask ATC to repeat something.

Request
Use this word to ask for something, or prepare ATC for an upcoming request. Example: You're flying in Class B at an assigned altitude of 5,500 feet and there are clouds ahead "Boston approach, 505EC request." Wait. Boston approach responds: "505 EC go ahead." You answer: "505EC would like to descend to 3,500 because of clouds." Use this word also to make a request at any time, without waiting, e.g. "Hanscom tower, 505EC requests the right base to 23"; "Cessna 92747 requests you call my base."

Looking for the traffic (or just "Looking")
An acknowledgement after ATC tells you about another aircraft in your area.

Traffic in sight
ATC has given you a traffic report and you see the other aircraft.

Negative contact
ATC has given you a traffic report, and after a reasonable search you still don't see the other aircraft.

Student pilot:
You will be amazed at how much help, cooperation, and forgiveness you can get, and often how much nicer ATC becomes, when you tell them you're a student pilot. If you're having trouble understanding what they're saying or what they want, this is a good phrase to start with. There is no shame in telling them this. Example: "Hanscom tower, 505EC student pilot requests say again?"

General tip: Keep it short; don't be chatty.

Things an air traffic controller might say:

Cleared to/for
Cleared for the option
Continue
Go Ahead
Report downwind/base
State (your) intentions
Maintain [1500] until...
Climb to...
Descend to...
Fly heading…
Make [left] closes
You're number [three] following a...
Traffic at two o'clock [high/low] is a...
Check wheels down
Confirm...
Hold short of...
...the ILS critical area
Position and hold
Do you want advisories?
Ident
Radar contact
Contact [tower] on [118.5]
Cleared out of class [D]
Squawk VFR
Frequency change approved
Radar service is terminated
Recycle
Taxi to…
Taxi into position and hold
Extend downwind
I'll call your base
Do a 360 and re-enter the [downwind]

WHAT THEY MEAN:

Cleared…
ATC has given you the permission and right to do something. "Cleared to land, runway 11" "Cleared for takeoff." "Cleared to enter Class B."

Cleared for the option
Said when preparing for a landing, without further clearance you may do any of these things as you wish: full stop, stop-and-go, touch-and-go, or go-around.

Continue
Keep doing what you're doing. Go straight if you were told to go straight. If you were told earlier to enter the pattern downwind on the 45, then do that.

Go ahead
Talk to ATC. Perhaps the airwaves have been very busy and you finally manage to get in, saying, "Hanscom tower, Katana 505EC." Then wait until the tower says, "505EC go ahead." It's your turn to talk, now.

Report…
ATC is telling you that when you arrive at the given position, you should radio the tower and tell them so. "Report downwind": when you're established on the downwind and are at midfield, call the tower and say, "505EC downwind." "Report base": call the tower as you start to turn base and say, "5EC turning base."

State (your) intentions
This is most often tower's polite way of saying that they don't understand what you're doing, or that you are not on the right heading, or that you are not following instructions. They want to know what you want to do, or what you think you're doing. Then they can give you appropriate guidance.

Maintain…
Stay at a given altitude. "Climb and maintain 4500" means you should climb up to 4500 MSL and stay there until they tell you otherwise. "Maintain 1500 until Cider Hill": do not descend below 1500 until you reach this landmark.

Climb to/descend to…
Go to the altitude they give you.

Fly heading…
Turn to the direction given. "Fly heading 180": go south until told otherwise.

Make [left/right] closes
This could also be phrased, "Make (left/right) close traffic." You are going to work in the traffic pattern, and make left or right turns, as instructed.

You're number [three] following a...
You are in the traffic pattern, and there will be planes landing in front of you. "You're number three following a Cessna" means that one plane is cleared to land, there's a Cessna behind that, and you should be looking for the Cessna so you can follow behind it.

Traffic at two o'clock [high], [three miles] is a [Dash 8].
The standard traffic advisory: in this example, look forward and to the right for a big twin commuter plane above you and a few miles away. This advisory will often be accompanied by information on the direction that the Dash 8 is traveling.

Check wheels down
At some airports, this is a standard thing to say whether your wheels are down or not. It would be a good time to check, though, as this is only said once you're cleared to land.

Confirm...
ATC wants you to repeat some instruction you've been given.

Hold short of...
Said when taxiing. Stop before reaching and do not cross the given runway or taxiway. Always repeat this instruction back to the controller.

Hold short of the ILS critical area
Stay behind not just the runway hold-short solid lines, but behind the ILS hold-short line (looks like a ladder with double rungs).

Position and hold
Go on to the runway and wait in position to take off.

Recycle
ATC isn't reading your transponder, so they want you to turn your transponder off, then turn it back on again.

Ident
Push the little button on the transponder. This makes your radar blip blossom on their screen, so they can find you easily and know who you are.

Radar contact
ATC is informing you that it has you on radar. You don't need to respond to this.

Contact [tower] on [118.5]
ATC is "handing you off" to another controller, telling you to change your radio frequency and talk to someone else. In this example, you would respond, "505EC going to tower," switch your radio frequency to 118.50, and report in by saying, for example, "Hanscom Tower, Katana 505EC at 2000."

Cleared out of class [D]
ATC is informing you that you are leaving its airspace and can go on your own recognizance. This phrase is often followed by…

Radar service is terminated
ATC is telling you that it will not provide separation or traffic advisories any more. This phrase is often followed by…

Squawk VFR
Change your transponder code to 1200. And this phrase is often followed by…

Frequency change approved
This call is permission to stop communications with ATC, usually because you're leaving their airspace and continuing on a visual flight.

Do you want advisories?
You can request to stay on the radio with a controller, and be advised of traffic in your vicinity, as ATC's workload allows. This is called traffic advisories, or "flight following.

Taxi to [runway 29] [via Juliet and Echo]
A taxi clearance: if cleared to taxi TO a runway, you are allowed to cross all other taxiways and runways on the way there, but you must hold short of the final runway. In the case of this example, you should go on taxiway Juliet, turn on to Echo, and taxi up to the hold-short line of runway 29.

Taxi into position and hold (or just, "Position and hold")
Drive your airplane on to the beginning of the runway and stop. Do not take off. You are being put in position for your takeoff, but another plane is still on the runway, or other traffic considerations (e.g. wake turbulence) make your departure unsafe.

Extend downwind
Don't turn from downwind to base yet. This is to separate your plane from other traffic in the pattern. This is often followed by…

I'll call your base
Stay on downwind, at traffic pattern altitude, until the tower tells you to turn in.

Do a 360 and re-enter the [downwind]
The controller wants you to do a standard two-minute turn-around-a-point in the pattern (360 degrees of turn), and reenter the pattern wherever you left it. This is for spacing purposes. This instruction could also happen on base or final. If you're just about to turn left base, ATC could also tell you to do a right 270 (degree turn) and come back in on base. A 360 gives you the perfect opportunity to use that stuff you learned in "turns around a point," and to practice one.

Likely calls when coming in to Hanscom

The pilot of 3572M (3572 Mike) has gotten ATIS C (Charlie) on 124.6, and found out that the active runway is 29. The plane is now ten miles out, heading southeast toward Hanscom from the practice area.3572M: "Hanscom Tower, Warrior 3572Mike, one-zero miles northwest, landing, with Charlie."
Hanscom Tower: "Warrior 3572M, Hanscom Tower, report the right downwind to runway two-niner."
3572M: "Report right downwind to two-niner. 72M"

Note that when you call, the tail number goes first. When you respond, the tail number comes at the end

Here are instructions that tower commonly gives, after a first call:
"Report entering a right downwind to two-niner."
"Report a two-mile right base to runway two-three."
"Report a three-mile left base turn to final, runway five."
"Fly a straight-in for runway one-one. Report a three-mile final."
"Remain clear of class D and give me a call in ten minutes."
(In these examples, all runway numbers are interchangeable.)

What to say to FSS, to open a flight plan in the air.

When you go on a cross country, file a flight plan by calling 1-800-WX-BRIEF. Open the plan using the radio, after you've taken off and are outside of controlled airspace.

Flight Service Stations are called "[City] Radio." For example, around here, it's "Bridgeport Radio," and up in most of New Hampshire and Maine it's "Bangor Radio." The city name is the one that's listed on the nearby VOR or RCO boxes on the sectional. Those boxes also tell you frequencies you can use to contact them. First try 122.2. This is the standard FSS frequency everywhere. The first call is merely: you, me, frequency.
Pilot: "Bridgeport Radio, Katana 303EC on 122.2."
Wait for a response. The operator may be working on several different frequencies at once, talking to other people. If you wait a full minute without getting at least a "Katana 303EC, stand by," then try again. If that doesn't work, try another frequency, or listen over a VOR, as listed on the sectional.
Bridgeport Radio: "Katana 303EC, Bridgeport Radio, go ahead."
Tell them you'd like to to open your flight plan, from where to where, and what time you took off.
Pilot: "We'd like to open our flight plan from Bedford to White Plains. Our time off was One-four-five-five Zulu."
Bridgeport Radio: "Roger Katana 303EC, that flight plan is now activated.

Uncontrolled airport procedure

When coming in to an uncontrolled airport, such as Fitchburg, start by getting the pertinent information, such as ASOS (if it's available).

For Fitchburg, you may then want to talk to their UNICOM-which is simply somebody sitting at the FBO desk waiting to fuel planes and listening to the radio-to find out which runway is in use:
Pilot: "Fitchburg UNICOM, Tomahawk 9171A requests the active."
UNICOM: "Active at Fitchburg is three-two."

From then on, you're talking to other traffic in the area, in order that everyone be aware of each other. Call the traffic by "[City name] traffic." For uncontrolled airport communications, it's still: YOU, ME, WHERE, WHAT, and then add to the end the city name again.

The first call for the sake of traffic control should be made when still 5-10 miles away, declaring your intention to enter the pattern.
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A, six miles southeast, will overfly the field at two thousand feet for a left downwind entry to runway three two, Fitchburg."

The next call is from a mile or two out, on the 45 to enter the downwind.
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A is one mile to the west, to enter the left downwind for runway three two, Fitchburg."

Thereafter, the calls are: on downwind, on base, on final, and exiting or entering the runway. On final, you could announce your intentions.
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A, left downwind for runway three-two, Fitchburg."
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A, left base for runway three-two, Fitchburg."
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A, turning/on final for runway three-two, touch-and-go, Fitchburg."
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A is clear of the active, Fitchburg."
Pilot: "Fitchburg traffic, Tomahawk 9171A, taking the active three two [for departure to the west] [for work in the pattern], Fitchburg."

Note: You are probably not alone out there. The purpose of these calls is to make others aware, and for you to be aware of others. Keep your eyes open and be courteous and cautious about your place in the pattern, and your turn.
Note: None of these calls are mandatory, and there could very well be people in the pattern who don't even have radios. Radio calls are not a substitute for awareness, so keep your eyes open. It is always your responsibility to see and avoid other traffic, regardless of radio calls.
Final note: Not all of these calls may be necessary, and in fact some examiners and experienced pilots prefer that people not jam up the airways with every single detail of their pattern. Use your judgment, and keep the calls short.

"Flight following" means staying in constant contact with a tower or flight control center, who watches your position and gives you reports of other traffic in your area when they have the time (which is almost always). It is also known as getting "advisories." ATC will give you a squawk code for your transponder, and watch on the radar.

There are several ways to start flight following. You can ask for help from the tower while you're still on the ground:
Pilot: "Lawrence Tower, Cessna niner two seven four seven at runway two-three, ready for departure, request coordination for flight following to Burlington, Vermont."
Tower: "Seven four seven roger, squawk 6245."

Tower may be able to help you with this, and may not. ATC may tell you whom to contact once you're flying. Around here, it's most common to get flight following once you're in the air, by contacting Boston Approach. To do this, tune to 124.40, and say only your call sign and wait for a response. (The approach controllers may be talking on several frequencies at once. They'll reply when able.)
Pilot: "Boston Approach, Cessna niner two seven four seven."
Approach: "Cessna niner two seven four seven, Boston Approach, go ahead."
Pilot: "Seven four seven requests flight following to Burlington Vermont at 6500 feet."
Approach: "Seven four seven squawk 5669."
Change the transponder.
Approach: "Cessna niner two seven four seven, radar contact."

The controller will then tell you when other traffic is in your area. Later, he/she will give you to another controller on a different frequency.
Approach: "Cessna niner two seven four seven, contact Manchester on 124.9"
Pilot: "Switching to Manchester 124.9, seven four seven."

Weather information

Always get a weather briefing before going flying.
By phone to the FSS is always: 1-800-WX-BRIEF (1-800-992-7433)
You can get some recorded information, but it's best always to talk to a briefer beforehand. Tell the briefer your tail number and pertinent information. The pertinent information is: where you're departing from, where you're going, when you're leaving, the expected duration of the flight, and at what altitude. E.g. "Hello, I'm in tail number 108CM, flying from Bedford to Nashua at 11:00 local time today. Could I get a local area weather briefing?" E.g. "This is [Yes, here you can say, "This is…"] 9171A. I'm going to be going from Hanscom to Montreal, Canada taking off at about 1300 zulu and landing at about 1600 zulu, at 4500 feet. I'd like an enroute weather forecast and winds aloft, please."

Websites:

http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov I like this one for all the basic information, including an overview of the area, prog charts, TAFs and METARS, and even radar and satellite images.

Once you have a license (including a student pilot certificate): www.duat.com or www.duats.com can give you a legal briefing.

Climbs, Descents, Turns, and Stalls

Air work, which entails slow flight, stalls, climbs, descents, and steep turns is the one thing all pilots have in common.  Pilots have had to learn and use air work techniques to successfully and safely fly airplanes.  Students learn proper techniques and will have to demonstrate those skills to earn their pilot certificate.  The flight review (FAR 61.56) requires a proper air work demonstration.  This is the most fundamental skill you as a pilot will ever learn.

Don't hit anything!

Before anything!!! A pilots FIRST obligation is to NOT HIT ANYTHING.  This means other traffic, terrain, and obstacles.  Terrain is important when your in mountainous areas, even if your flying well above 3,000 feet AGL.  This will require you to pay attention, make smart decisions, and to have situational awareness. Make sure to keep a constant scan of the practice area.  Even if your over flatter area, terrain is still of concern.  If your flying is done at 3,000 feet AGL, terrain avoidance is enhanced.


Terrain avoidance needs to of utmost priority during every aspect of flight, especially during practice flights when the flight instructor and student might be focused too much on the instruments inside the aircraft instead of on the traffic outside.  During portions of training, the flight instructor needs to show the student how to perform a maneuver, so at points both of the occupants, are focused inside the aircraft, which is a scary concept.


I have never experienced a near-miss but everyone who i have read who has, will never forget it they said.  The instructor must teach proper scan techniques and ingrain constant awareness in the students brain.  Performing clearing turns before every maneuver, divide attention between the instruments, horizon, and potential traffic, terrain, or obstacles.  This benefits both piloting techniques, and safety, as both the flight instructor and student will remain vigilant, as the student learns to integrate the visual piloting information while avoiding the trap of fixation on either. 

A clearing turn should initially be a full 360 degrees (any medium bank will do) while the student and instructor scan from ground to heaven. If you have passengers, brief them before the flight about looking for traffic. After the first maneuver you can switch to 90- to 180-degree turns. After you have done several maneuvers, another 360-degree turn is advised. If you are in a busy area or flying during a busy time of day or year (in the local practice area on a Sunday afternoon during the summer), full clearing turns will be required more often. Obviously if you see an aircraft in your immediate vicinity, keeping track of it takes priority over performing steep turns and stalls. Don't let aircraft in your vicinity become “lost.” If they get too close and you lose track of them, you have to find them again before it is safe to get back to work. You should also utilize radar flight following when it's available, even during training flights.

The fundamentals

The maneuvers outlined here are described for a typically equipped Cessna 172, the most common general aviation training aircraft. Other types of training aircraft may require slightly different procedures (the green arc on the rpm gauge, use of carburetor heat and mixture, flaps, etc., differ from aircraft to aircraft, for example). In all flight training situations, however, certificated flight instructors, utilizing the pilot's operating handbook (POH) for the aircraft, safely teach the required maneuvers. Some procedures are universal such as the requirement to decrease the angle of attack after a stall, seeing and avoiding other traffic, and keeping the rudder coordinated (ball centered) during these maneuvers.

Strip away the airplane's size, type, and mission; get behind the controls; and they all do pretty much the same thing: climb, descend, turn, and fly straight and level. Every maneuver an airplane flies is either one of these or a combination of two or more of them.

Starting with the takeoff, pilots begin the first fundamental maneuver of flight: climbing. When climbing, the pilot has several options regarding the speed, rate, and pitch attitude at which the airplane ascends. Most pilots prefer a climb at a pitch attitude that affords safe forward vision. Simply put, while climbing at full power, don't pitch the nose up so far that your forward vision is hindered. This allows terrain and traffic awareness while ascending. Pilots may also need to climb at the airplane's best rate of climb (VY) or best angle of climb (VX). VY provides for the greatest vertical climb in the least amount of time (best for en-route climbs to higher altitudes), while VX affords the most vertical ascent over the least horizontal distance (best for climbs when terrain must be cleared). In any climb situation, particularly sustained climbs, the pilots should frequently dip the nose to check for traffic and terrain in the blind spot in front of and below the aircraft.

When practicing climbs from level flight, during flight training, or proficiency demonstrations, pilots should began, as in all air work exercises, by flying clearing turns for traffic/terrain awareness.

Steep turns

Steep turns are generally flown at 45-degree bank angles, in both directions, and to a specific heading. Your goal should be to roll out within 10 degrees of a predetermined heading and to maintain your altitude within 100 feet. When making steep turns slowly roll into the turn, and as you pass through 30 degrees of bank, begin to smoothly increase back elevator pressure to maintain your altitude. As the turn continues, increased elevator back pressure will be needed in order to maintain your altitude.

You must divide your attention between your flight instruments and the outside horizon to both maintain altitude and assure traffic and terrain clearance. Your primary instruments are altimeter, followed by your attitude indicator, airspeed indicator, and heading indicator. When you begin to roll out of the turn to your predetermined heading, lead the rollout by one-half the number of degrees of your bank angle. For example, in a 30-degree bank turn, begin to level the wings 15 degrees before you reach your desired heading (check the heading indicator). In a 45-degree turn lead the rollout to heading by 22 degrees. You will also have to lower the nose, as the back pressure required to maintain level flight during your turn will cause the airplane to climb once the turn has been completed.

Slow flight (minimum controllable airspeed)

Flying the airplane at airspeeds below VFE (maximum flap extension speed — top of the airspeed indicator's white arc), right down to stalling speeds (bottom of the airspeed indicator's white and green arcs), must be mastered in order to be fully in command, no matter what airspeed the situation mandates.

The slower the aircraft flies, however, the more difficult it is to control. As the airplane's airspeed is reduced, the pilot must maintain a balancing act between pitch, power, aileron, and rudder inputs, instrument interpretation, flap management, and maintaining a proper outside scan.

As the aircraft slows, it requires a higher pitch attitude to maintain altitude; the higher pitch attitude, in turn, will require right rudder inputs to stop the airplane from turning left of the required heading.

Minimum controllable airspeed is flying the airplane (fully within your control) on the verge of stalling. As with all air work proficiency practice, try to maintain airspeed within 10 knots, altitude within 100 feet, and heading within 10 degrees.

Stalls: full and imminent

The FAA requires training in full and imminent stall technique in both the landing and departure configurations. Rule number one in stall training is to keep the rudder pedals coordinated (ball in the center of the inclinometer) to avoid putting the aircraft into a spin. This is important in all stall training, but particularly during departure stalls because of the high engine power and torque and the very high pitch attitude, which requires greater-than-normal right rudder input. Anytime an imminent stall recovery is required, the pilot should begin the stall recovery at the first sign of stalling and avoid continuing the maneuver into a full stall. Employ the following guidelines when practicing stalls.

Always keep the rudder coordinated (step on ball). Recover from an imminent stall at the first sign of a stall.

As with all aviation endeavors there are several variables — among them, proper technique for the specific aircraft type, atmospheric conditions, and configuration (slow flight and stalls can be flown with and without flaps and turns, for example.

There are, however, several constants in aviation, such as the fact that stalling occurs when the airfoil's angle of attack exceeds its ability to produce lift, or the fact that the steeper the angle of bank the greater the increase in stall speed, as well as the decrease in lift. After the aircraft stalls the pilot must try to minimize altitude loss while maximizing airspeed, and by extension, aircraft control. Also, always remember to recover with throttle and rudder, as the airplane will rapidly turn left if the pilot quickly increases the throttle without appropriate rudder inputs.

Air work is at the heart of flying, a universal measure of piloting skills, and the fundamental element of piloting which will be required from the commencement of flight training in a Cessna 152 all the way through earning captain qualifications in a Boeing 777.

Climbs

• Clearing turns: Perform to ensure traffic and terrain are not factors.
• Mixture: Full rich (below 5,000 feet mean sea level), lean for best performance as aircraft ascends.
• Throttle: Full power (with coordinated right rudder).
• Pitch: For desired airspeed and/or rate of climb.
• Trim: To relieve elevator input.

(P, P, T, M—Pitch, Power, Trim, Mixture)

• Pitch: Lead level-off by 10 percent of the vertical velocity (e.g. 500 foot-per-minute rate of climb on the vertical speed indicator, begin leveling off 50 feet before your desired altitude). Hold altitude with pitch as the airspeed builds from climb speed to cruise speed (above the airspeed indicator's white arc).
• Power: Reduce for cruise flight — above the airspeed indicator's white arc and within the rpm green arc.
• Trim: For cruise flight.
• Mixture: Lean for maximum fuel efficiency and performance (rpm drop or peak exhaust gas temperature plus 50 degrees).

Descents

When descending from level flight, you could simply lower the nose, but that results in excessive airspeed and propeller rpm. It is better to reduce power and pitch the aircraft's nose down (and trim if needed). For the desired airspeed and/or rate of decent, following these steps:

• Clearing turns: Perform to ensure traffic and terrain are not factors.
• Power: Reduce (if below rpm green arc — carb heat on).
• Pitch: For desired airspeed and/or rate of decent.
• Trim: For steady descent.

Transition to level flight (P, P, M, T—Pitch, Power, Trim, Mixture)

• Pitch: Level simultaneously with adding power.
• Power: Increase back to cruise setting. Lead pitch up by 10 percent of the vertical velocity (e.g. 1,000 feet per minute rate of descent on the vertical speed indicator, lead level-off by 100 feet above your target altitude).
• Trim: For level cruise flight.
• Mixture: Lean for maximum fuel efficiency and performance (rpm drop or peak exhaust gas temperature plus 50 degrees).

Steep turns

• Perform clearing turns to assure traffic and terrain are not factors.
• Set power at 2,100 to 2,300 rpm.
• Left turn — slowly bank to 45 degrees with coordinated rudder (step on the ball).
• Right turn — lead turn with right rudder then slowly bank to 45 degrees and coordinate rudder.
• Spot bug on windshield and keep ball on attitude indicator just above white line.
• Use pitch to maintain altitude as turn continues.
• Lead rollout to heading by half the degree of the bank (e.g. 30-degree bank lead rollout 15 degrees); in a 45-degree bank lead rollout by 22 degrees (20 degrees works fine).
• Pitch down for level flight.
• Adjust throttle as needed.

Slow flight

• Perform clearing turns to assure terrain and traffic are not factors.
• Throttle: Slowly reduce.
• Carburetor (carb) heat: On below green rpm arc.
• Pitch: Slowly increase to maintain altitude.
• Flaps: Slowly lower when in the airspeed indicator's white arc to maintain a lower pitch attitude.
• Rudder: Maintain coordination (ball in the center)—right as nose pitches up.
• Ailerons: Maintain heading.
• Throttle: Maintains altitude (not pitch anymore).
• Elevator: Maintains airspeed.

Recovery

• Full throttle and coordinated right rudder, pitch to maintain altitude.
• Carb heat: Off.
• Flaps: Retract 10 degrees at a time.
• Altitude: Maintain with pitch.
• Airspeed: Cruise (above the airspeed indicator's white arc).
• Power: Set for cruise.
• Trim: Set for cruise.

Minimum controllable airspeed

• Perform clearing turns.
• Carb heat: On below green rpm arc.
• Throttle: Slowly reduce.
• Altitude: Maintain with pitch.
• Airspeed: Reduce to white arc.
• Flaps: Slowly lower to full.
• Airspeed: Pitch to bottom of airspeed indicator white arc.
• Hold airplane just above stall (at stall warning).

Recovery

• Full throttle and coordinated right rudder, pitch to maintain altitude.
• Carb heat: Off.
• Flaps: Retract 10 degrees at a time.
• Altitude: Maintain with pitch.
• Airspeed: Set for cruise.
• Trim: Set for cruise.

Departure (power-on) stall

• Perform clearing turns.
• Throttle: Reduce slowly.
• Carb heat: On.
• Slowly pitch the aircraft's nose up to rotation speed.
• Ease in carb heat and throttle to full.
• Increase pitch, with coordinated rudder, to stall.

Recovery

• Pitch: Decrease.
• Rudder: Maintain directional control.
• Pitch: To cruise.
• Trim: Set for cruise.

Approach to landing (power-off) stall

• Perform clearing turns.
• Throttle: Reduce slowly.
• Carb heat: On.
• Altitude: Maintain with pitch.
• Airspeed: Pitch to white arc.
• Flaps and bank: As desired (these are optional configurations).
• Pitch: Increase until stall occurs.

Recovery

• Pitch: Decrease.
• Throttle: Full (with appropriate amount of right rudder).
• Carb heat: Off.
• Airspeed: VX initially, then to cruise.
• Flaps: Retract in 10-degree increments.
• Pitch: Level off.
• Power: Level flight.
• Trim: Level flight.

Accelerated stall

• Perform clearing turns.
• Carb heat: On.
• Throttle: 1,500 rpm.
• Altitude: Maintain with pitch.
• Airspeed: Below VA (maneuvering speed).
• Throttle: 2,000 rpm.
• Carb heat: Off.
• Pitch: Increase to normal climb.
• Bank: 45 degrees until stall.

Recovery

• Pitch: Decrease.
• Bank: Wings level.
• Throttle: Full power.
• Airspeed: VX.
• Pitch: Increase to VX.
• Vertical speed indicator: Positive rate of climb.
• Pitch: Level off.
• Trim: level flight.

Light Gun Signals

Do you know the light gun signals that are used in case of a radio failure or if your aircraft is not equipped with a radio? Air Traffic Control (ATC) will use a signal lamp to give you instructions and clearance limits. The light gun has a focused bright beam and is capable of emitting three different colors: red, white and green. You have to look closely but they are visible from a surprising distance away. These colors may be flashed or steady, and have different meanings to aircraft depending if you are in flight or on the ground. Pilots can acknowledge the instructions by “rocking” their wings, moving the ailerons if on the ground, or by flashing their landing or navigation lights during hours of darkness. Here’s a quick refresher to the signals used:

Flashing Green on the Ground: 
Cleared to Taxi

   

 Flashing Green in the Air: 

Cleared to approach, or return to land

         


                                                

Steady Green on the Ground:    
Cleared for Takeoff                                               

Steady Green in the Air:

Cleared to Land

                                                                              
Steady Red on the Ground:  
Stop                                             
 

Steady Red in the Air:

Continue to circle, give way to other traffic

                                                                  
Flashing Red on the Ground:   
Immediately taxi clear of runway in use                                                        

                 

Flashing Red in the Air:

Airport unsafe, DO NOT LAND

                                     
Alternating Red/Green on the ground:  
Exercise Extreme Caution                                        

Alternating Red/Green in the Air:

Exercise Extreme Caution

    
Flashing White on the Ground:   
Return to starting point                                             






        

There is no flashing white in the Air: 

Securing Your Airplane

Did you ever arrive at your destination airport and discover that you really don’t know how to properly tie down the airplane? If so, take a look at these easy to tie knots and with a little practice you will be ready the next time you tie your airplane down.


There are different kinds of knots one can tie, but I have chosen to illustrate the two most commonly used, the bowline and the double locking half hitch.
Obviously the type of lines available at different tiedown spots are varied but chains offer the best security followed by nylon rope with at least 3000-pound breaking strength (1/2″ diameter) for singles and 4000-pound breaking strength for light twins.




It is important to never tie the lines directly to the struts but instead use the tie down rings provided. Ropes can easily slip to a point where even slight side pressures can damage them. Allow for about an inch of movement “play” when the lines are tightened but be careful not to overtighten as this could exert inverted flight stresses on the aircraft.
The tiedown lines should also be angled forward from the wings to the anchor spot and aft from the tail to the anchor spot. This will give the best protection and security to hold down the aircraft.

Double Locking Half Hitch- The animation at the left shows the first set of half hitches being tied, a second set (identical to the first) should be tied about six inches to one foot below the first to complete the knot.  Click the photo to play the animation.


• Run the line through the tiedown ring from the back of the airplane to the front.
• Circle the line under, then over, the aft line, then through and behind the loop (front line) for the first half hitch.
• Repeat and circle the line again under the aft line, then over and in front of the just created half hitch, then through and behind the front line loop.
• Pull down to lock the first set of half hitches and then tie a second set 6-12″ lower to complete the tiedown knot.

Bowline- The animation at the left shows the bowline knot, it should be tied about six to twelve inches below the tiedown ring.  Click the photo to play the animation.


• Run the line through the tiedown ring from the back of the airplane to the front.
• Create a loop on the aft line by twisting a section of rope backwards towards you so that the loop faces the front of the airplane and the aft line (running down to the ground) is behind the line (running up to the tiedown ring).
• Thread the line through and over the loop just created, then under the aft line, circle it back around and over the aft line.
• Finish the knot by threading the line back through the loop and pull it tight.
Don’t forget to set the brakes and install the gust locks if you intend to leave the aircraft for the night or extended period of time. Hopefully these knots will serve you well and if you would like more information about securing your aircraft take a look at the Federal Aviation Administration’s circular AC20-35C “Tiedown Sense”.
Click here to get the FAA Tiedown Sense advisory circular AC20-35C.